Effect of planting distances and nitrogen fertilization on yield of Arachis
Hypogaea L.
Published Instituto Tecnológico superior Edwards Deming. Quito
- Ecuador Periodicity July - September Vol. 1, Num. 26, 2025 pp.
17-35 http://centrosuragraria.com/index.php/revista Dates of receipt Received: May 22, 2025 Approved: June 20, 2025 Correspondence author Creative Commons License Creative Commons License, Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International.https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.es
Efecto de
distancias de siembra y fertilización nitrogenada en el rendimiento de Arachis
Hypogaea L.
Tito Arce Olivo1
Julissa Arcentales Montalvo2
Angélica Angamarca Pigüave3
Ana Camacho Leyes4
Professor of Agronomy at the Technical
University "Luis Vargas Torres" of Esmeraldas. Mutile Campus. Km 20 via Esmeraldas - Tachina
e-mail: tito.arce@utelvt.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3194-1263 Professor of Agronomy at the Technical
University "Luis Vargas Torres" of Esmeraldas. Mutile Campus. Km 20 via Esmeraldas - Tachina
e-mail: julissa.arcentales@utelvt.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4424-2784 Researcher Universidad
Técnica Luís Vargas Torres de Esmeraldas:
angelica.angamarcap@gmail.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9313-980X Researcher Universidad
Técnica Luís Vargas Torres de Esmeraldas: ana.camachol@gmail.com
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0792-2230
Key words: Peanut
crop; Fertilizer; Yield.
Resumen: La investigación se realizó con la finalidad
evaluar el efecto de tres distancias de siembra (60 cm x 30 cm, 50 cm x 25
cm y 45 cm x 18 cm) y tres dosis de
fertilizante nitrogenado (0, 30 y 60 kg de N ha-1) en el rendimiento del
cultivo de maní variedad INIAP 382. Se aplicó un Diseño en Bloques
Completamente al Azar con arreglo factorial 3 x 3. El material de siembra y la
metodología del experimento fueron proporcionados por el Departamento de
Oleaginosas del Instituto Nacional Autónomo de Investigaciones Agropecuarias.
El análisis estadístico se realizó con el software InfoStat, mediante pruebas
de significancia de Tukey al 5%, considerando las variables: altura de plantas,
número de vainas por planta, número de semillas por planta, peso de 100
semillas, rendimiento (kg ha-1) y el análisis económico. Los resultados
obtenidos reflejan que el mayor rendimiento se obtiene con la distancia de
siembra 45 cm entre calles y 18 cm entre plantas (3928.05 kg ha-1); sin
embargo, la relación Beneficio-Costo más alta se logra sembrando a 60 cm entre
calles y 30 cm entre plantas (3.01), en ambos casos aplicando 30 kg N ha-1;
además, ambos factores, inciden
significativamente en el rendimiento del cultivo de maní, en estas condiciones
agroecológicas. Sin embargo, es necesario evaluar la adaptación de esta
variedad en otras localidades y considerar que la humedad del suelo se
encuentre en el rango óptimo para lograr el mayor aprovechamiento del
fertilizante nitrogenado por parte de las plantas.
Palabras clave: Cultivo de maní;
Fertilizante; Rendimiento.
Introduction
Arachis hypogaea is a vegetable source of protein and unsaturated fats highly appreciated
by the Ecuadorian and world population (Guamán and
Andrade, 2010). The peanut kernel is used for the preparation of certain food
dishes (Garcés-Fiallos, Guamán,
and Díaz-Coronel, 2011). The seeds are consumed raw, cooked or roasted,
processed to produce butter or used for soups and sauces. Its consumption is
not restricted because it does not generate massive production of cholesterol
due to the high percentage (80%) of unsaturated fats (Martínez, 2007). It
contains phytosterols that reduce bad cholesterol and provides minerals such as
sodium, potassium, iron, magnesium, iodine, copper and calcium; it has
antioxidant substances such as tocopherols that rejuvenate cells and tissues of
the human body (Guamán and Andrade, 2010).
Among the main varieties grown on the Ecuadorian coast is lNIAP-382
Caramelo, which belongs to the Runner commercial group. It flowers between 33
and 36 days and is harvested between 130 and 140 days; the plant height is 23
to 34 cm, has between 14 and 28 branches per plant; 25 to 35 grains per plant,
50 to 60 g as 100 seed weight and an average yield of 3341 kg ha(-1) (Guamán and Andrade, 2010).
The main problem for peanut producers is low yields per unit area
(Chávez, 2007), because although the National Autonomous Institute of
Agricultural Research (INIAP) has provided varieties characterized by oil
concentrations ranging from 45 to 48% and protein concentrations ranging from
28 to 30%, with yields exceeding 3 000 kg ha(-1) (Guamán and Andrade, 2010), but these results have not been
validated in locations that have good potential for crop development and,
therefore, producers do not benefit from these technologies (Vélez, 2011).
Planting time, plant population per hectare directly affects peanut crop
yield and this, in turn, is determined by spacing (da Silveira et al, 2013).
Regarding planting distances, larger planting distances can intercept more
radiation compared to lower densities (Augusto et al., 2010). The planting distance of 0.45 m x 0.30 m is
optimal for peanut planting to obtain higher yields (Abad, 2016). However, the
varieties INIAP-380 and INIAP-381 Rosita, should be planted with a distance of
0.50 m between rows x 0.20 m between sites, placing 2 seeds, obtaining a
population of 200000 plants per hectare (Naab et al., 2009). Briones (2021,
considers that the best yields in peanuts are obtained by planting the Caramelo
variety at distances of 50 cm x 15 cm; although the INIAP 383 variety with a
population of 81 632 plants/ha obtained the highest number of pods/plant, the
highest net economic benefit is achieved with the INIAP 308 variety, 62 500
plants/ha (Garcia 2016). The planting frames do not significantly influence the
averages of days to flowering of the crop, number of pods per pod and weight of
100 seeds, however, the greater spacing between plants allowed obtaining plants
of greater height and yield (Pallo (2021); in other agroecological conditions,
the distance of 60 cm between rows and 20 cm between sites, allows obtaining
greater fresh and dry weight of the seed (Dávila, 2021). In short, an appropriate plant density can
significantly improve peanut yields under rainfed
conditions (Pedelini, 2012), and the increase in population density can significantly increase the
accumulated biomass and seed yield per unit area (Guamán
and Andrade, 2010).
The
peanut crop is not demanding to fertilization (Guamán and Andrade, 2010); however, soil analysis is essential to determine the
fertilization program to follow in any commercial planting (Fundora et al.,
2001)). The crop responds
erratically to the direct application of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus
fertilizers (Naab et al., 2009). Although it is a legume and therefore has the
ability to incorporate atmospheric nitrogen into the soil, it is recommended to
apply 10 to 20 kg N ha-1for establishment (Martinez, 2007). In
addition, under certain conditions it responds well to nitrogen fertilization
with minor elements (Chávez, 2019), and crop rotation and green manures can be
used as alternatives (Alvarado, 2004). The lower percentage of empty grain
contributes to increase seed crop yield Ibanez et al. (2018). Mora et al.
(2019), affirm that the incorporation of organic fertilizers, has favorable
effects on the variables pods per plant, grains per plant and peanut yield.
In evaluations conducted at the Experimental Station "Mútile"
of the Technical University "Luis Vargas Torres" of Esmeraldas, the
yield of the INIAP-382 variety stands out in relation to other materials
(Gracia, 2010), so in this research the effect of planting distances and
nitrogen fertilization on crop yield is studied, contributing to the rational
use of inputs and increasing the economic income of producers.
Methodology
The
experiment was carried out in a field located at the geographical coordinates
00º13'33'' north latitude and 73º26'00" west longitude in the Quinindé canton, province of Esmeraldas, Ecuador. The
average temperature is 26°C, average monthly rainfall is 93 mm and relative
humidity is 86%. The soil is sandy loam with 31 ppm of N (medium), 25 ppm of P
(high) and 0.13 meq/100 ml of K (low). A pH of 5.8
(medium acid). Peanut seed, variety INIAP-382, was provided by the Oilseed
Department of the Litoral del Sur Experimental Station "Dr. Enrique
Ampuero Pareja" of INIAP. Three planting distances were evaluated: 60 cm x
30 cm, 50 cm x 25 cm and; 45 cm x 18 cm; applying three levels of nitrogen
fertilization (0, 30 and 60 kg of N ha-1) to evaluate its effect on
crop yield.
Considering
the nature of the work and the characteristics of the site where the experiment
was carried out, a Completely Randomized Block Design (CSBD) was applied, using
three replications. The methodology applied was that recommended by the
National Oilseed Program of INIAP (PRONAOL), considering the edaphoclimatic
characteristics of the research site and the particularities of the peanut crop.
Statistical analysis was performed using InfoStat
software.
Land preparation
consisted of two passes of plowing and one pass of harrowing. In addition, the
field was furrowed considering the distances previously established in the
experimental design. Sowing was done manually, with a continuous jet, placing
the seed at the bottom of the furrow at a depth of 4 cm. Thinning was carried
out 12 days after sowing, eliminating the plants that were outside the row and
those that showed little vigor, leaving the amount established according to the
previously defined populations. Nitrogen fertilizer was applied 30 days after
planting, applying the established doses for each treatment. For weed control, Gramilag herbicide (1 L ha-1) was applied
pre-emergence to the crop and then mechanical controls were carried out every
15 days. Control of codling moth (Stegasta bosquella) was carried out with the application of
Chlorpyrifos (1 L ha-1) . The pods were harvested according to the
maturity of the treatments studied, at 120 days.
The following variables were evaluated:
Plant
height (cm): 40
days after sowing, measuring with a graduated ruler, from the ground to the
apex of the central stem, taking 10 plants at random from each treatment and
the result was expressed in centimeters.
Number
of pods per plant: The number of pods on 10 randomly selected plants in the net plot was
counted for each treatment and replication. Subsequently, the average was
calculated for weighting.
Number
of seeds per plant: The total
number of seeds of 10 plants taken at random from the useful area of each plot
and replication was counted. In addition, the percentage of pods having one,
two and three seeds was determined.
Weight
of 100 seeds (g): In the seeds harvested from the plants located in the net plot, 100 seeds
were counted and weighed on a precision balance. This procedure was repeated
three times and the average of these readings was taken as the value of this
variable.
Total
yield (kg ha-1) : This
variable was evaluated by harvesting the net area in each treatment and
replicate. Analyses were performed considering the area unit.
Economic analysis: Calculations were made of the net profit per
treatment and the Benefit/Cost ratio. For this purpose, the costs of each
treatment and the income from the sale of the product were determined
(considering a reference market price at the date of harvest), which allowed
establishing the economic convenience of the treatments in relation to the
costs of commercial production of 1 ha of peanuts.
Results
Plant height
The ANAVA for plant height at 40 days after planting
showed no significant differences between the factors studied. Tukey's test at 95% probability presents a
range of significance, being D2F2 the one that obtained the greatest height
(28.73 cm), followed by D3F3 (28.43 cm), D1F3 (28.10 cm). The lowest height was
obtained in D3F1 (21.77 cm) (Table 1).
Table 1. Tukey's test at 95% for plant height at 40
days, in the evaluation of the effect of
planting distances and nitrogen fertilization on the yield of Arachis hypogaea L.
density means n
D3 25.98 9 A
D1 25.99 9 A
D2 26.68 9 A
fertilization
F1 23.91
9 A
F3 26.84
9 A
F2 27.89
9 A
density x
fertilization
D3 F1 21.67 3 A
D1 F1 22.77 3 A
D2 F3 24.00 3 A
D1 F2 27.10 3 A
D2 F1 27.30 3 A
D3 F2 27.83 3 A
D1 F3 28.10 3 A
D3 F3 28.43 3 A
D2 F2 28.73 3 A
Different letters
indicate significant differences (p<=0.05).
Plant height at 40 days, in the evaluation of the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
Number
of pods per plant
The
ANAVA for the number of pods indicates that there is a significant difference
for fertilizer doses. Tukey's test at 95% shows three ranges of significance:
in the first is D3F2 (24.40) and D3F1 (24.83); in the second range D2F3
(29.37), D2F1 (30.43), D3F3 (32.50), D2F2 (33.70), D1F3 (34.23) and, D2F2
(35.77). The last rank corresponds to D1F2 (39.73) (Table 2).
Table 2. Tukey test at 95% for the number of pods per
plant, in the evaluation of the effect of
planting distances and nitrogen fertilization on yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
density Means n
D3 27.24 9 A
D2 31.17 9 A
D1 36.58 9 B
fertilization
F1 30.34 9 A
F3 32.03 9 A
F2 32.61 9 A
density
x fertilization
D3 F2 24.40 3 A
D3 F1 24.83 3 A
D2 F3 29.37 3 A
B
D2 F1 30.43 3 A
B
D3 F3 32.50 3 A
B
D2 F2 33.70 3 A
B
D1 F3 34.23 3 A
B
D1 F1 35.77 3 A
B
D1 F2 39.73 3 B
Different
letters indicate significant differences (p<=0.05).
Number of pods per plant, in the evaluation of the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
Seeds
per plant
The
ANAVA of seeds per plant indicates that there are no significant differences
between the factors evaluated. Tukey's test at 95%, shows three ranges of
significance: in the first is D1F1 (57.67); in the second range is D3F1
(95.00), D2F2 (96.33), D2F3 (96.67), D2F1 (98.67), D3F2 (99.33), D3F3 and D1F3
(100.00); and finally, in the third range is D1F2 (102.33) (Table 3).
Table 3. Tukey test at 95% for seeds per plant, in the
evaluation of the effect of planting
distances and nitrogen fertilization on yield of Arachis hypogaea L.
density Means n
D1 86.67 9 A
D2 97.22 9 A
D3 98.11 9 A
fertilization
F1 83.78 9 A
F3 98.89 9 A
F2 99.33 9 A
density x fertilization
D1 F1 57.67 3 A
D3 F1 95.00 3 A
B
D2 F2 96.33 3 A
B
D2 F3 96.67 3 A
B
D2 F1 98.67 3 A B
D3 F2 99.33 3 A B
D3 F3 100.00 3 A B
D1 F3 100.00 3 A B
D1 F2 102.33 3 B
Different
letters indicate significant differences (p<=0.05).
Seeds per plant, in the evaluation of the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
Weight
of 100 seeds (gr)
The
ANAVA for 100-seed weight showed statistical differences for the density
factor. Tukey's test at 95% shows three ranges of significance: in the first is
D2 (97.22), in the second D3 (98.11) and the highest value is obtained with D1
(104.44) (Table 4).
Table 4. Tukey test at 95% for the weight of 100 seeds
(g), in the evaluation of the effect of
sowing distances and nitrogen fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
density Means n
D2 97.22 9 A
D3 98.11 9 A
B
D1 104.44 9 B
fertilization
F3 98.89 9 A
F2 99.33 9 A
F1 101.56 9 A
density
x fertilization
D3 F1
95.00 3 A
D2 F2
96.33
3 A
D2 F3
96.67
3 A
D2 F1
98.67
3 A
D3 F2
99.33
3 A
D3 F3
100.00 3 A
D1 F3
100.00 3 A
D1 F2
102.33 3 A
D1 F1
111.00 3 A
Different
letters indicate significant differences (p<=0.05).
Figure 4. 100-seed weight (g),
in the evaluation of the effect of sowing
distances and nitrogen fertilization on the yield of Arachis hypogaea L.
Yield
(kg ha-1)
The
ANAVA for yield per hectare shows significant differences between the sowing
distances factor and for the interaction sowing distances by fertilization
levels. The Tukey test at 95%, for the sowing distances factor shows three
ranges of significance; in the first is D1 (2855.58), in the second D2
(3027.64) and finally D3 (3377.33). In
the interaction of the DxF factors, three ranges of
significance are observed; in the first is D1F3 (2567.63), D3F1 (2685.58) and
D2F2 (2753.25); in the second range D1F1 (2890.63), D1F2 (3108.48), D2F3
(3146.89), D2F1 (3182.78), D3F3 (3518.37) and the third range, D3F2 (3928.05)
(Table 5).
Table 5. Tukey test at 95% for yield (kg ha-1) ,
in the evaluation of the effect of sowing
distances and nitrogen fertilization on the yield of Arachis hypogaea L.
distance Means n
D1 2855.58 9 A
D2 3027.64 9 A
B
D3 3377.33 9 B
fertilization
F1 2919.66 9 A
F3 3077.63 9 A
F2 3263.26 9 A
density
x fertilization
D1 F3
2567.63 3 A
D3 F1
2685.58 3 A
D2 F2
2753.25 3 A
D1 F1
2890.63 3 A
B
D1 F2
3108.48 3 A
B
D2 F3
3146.89 3 A
B
D2 F1
3182.78 3 A
B
D3 F3
3518.37 3 A
B
D3 F2
3928.05 3 B
Different
letters indicate significant differences (p<=0.05).
Yield (kg ha-1) , in the evaluation of
the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
Economic analysis
Economic analysis for one hectare of the evaluated treatments indicates
that the highest profit is obtained with D3F2 (1496.83), followed by D1F2
(1245.09), D3F3 (1211.02), D2F1 (1209.67), D1F1 (1154.38), D2F3 (1108.13), D2F2
(911.95), D1F3 (880.58), and finally, D3F1 (791.35). The highest Benefit/Cost
ratio was obtained with D1F2 (3.01), followed by D1F1 (2.99), D3F2 (2.74), D2F1
(2.73), D2F3 (2.42), D3F3 (2.35), D1F3 (2.33), D2F2 (2.23), and finally D3F1
(1.97) (Table 7).
Table 6. Economic analysis, in the evaluation of the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis hypogaea L.
|
Treatments |
Factors |
Yield |
Costs |
Income |
Profit |
Rb/c |
|
T1 |
D1F1 |
2890.63 |
580.00 |
1734.38 |
1154.38 |
2.99 |
|
T2 |
D1F2 |
3108.48 |
620.00 |
1865.09 |
1245.09 |
3.01 |
|
T3 |
D1F3 |
2567.63 |
660.00 |
1540.58 |
880.58 |
2.33 |
|
T4 |
D2F1 |
3182.78 |
700.00 |
1909.67 |
1209.67 |
2.73 |
|
T5 |
D2F2 |
2753.24 |
740.00 |
1651.95 |
911.95 |
2.23 |
|
T6 |
D2F3 |
3146.89 |
780.00 |
1888.13 |
1108.13 |
2.42 |
|
T7 |
D3F1 |
2685.58 |
820.00 |
1611.35 |
791.35 |
1.97 |
|
T8 |
D3F2 |
3928.05 |
860.00 |
2356.83 |
1496.83 |
2.74 |
|
T9 |
D3F3 |
3518.37 |
900.00 |
2111.02 |
1211.02 |
2.35 |
Selling price = $ 0.60 c/kg shell.
Economic analysis, in the evaluation of the effect of sowing distances and nitrogen
fertilization on the yield of Arachis
hypogaea L.
Plant
height did not show significant differences after 40 days, with values between
21.77 and 28.73 cm; it is evident that the application of fertilizers (30 kg
Nha-1) did not increase plant growth by more than 5 cm, which
coincides with Guamán and Andrade (2010), who point
out that peanut only responds to the application of fertilizers in extremely
poor soils. It should be mentioned that depending on the growth habit of the
variety planted and the climatic and edaphic conditions, the results could
vary.
The
number of pods per plant obtained ranged between 24.40 and 39.73; the highest
number of pods was obtained using D1 (60 cm between rows and 30 cm between
sites), which is similar to the data reported by Guamán
et al. (2010) who state that the average number of pods per plant is 14 to 28;
coinciding with Gracia (2010) and Vélez (2011) who reported 28 and 38 pods per
plant, respectively. D3 (45 cm between rows and 18 cm between sites), presented
the lowest number of pods (24.40).
The
number of seeds per plant is between 57.67 and 102.33, where it is observed
that D1 (60 cm between rows and 30 cm between sites) stands out when nitrogen
fertilizer is applied at doses of 30 and 60 kg ha-1, coinciding with
Vélez (2011) who obtained 78 grains, while Gracia (2010), reported an average
of 47 grains. However, Guamán et al. (2010),
characterizing agronomically the INIAP 382-Caramelo variety, estimated between
25 to 35 grains per plant.
The
weight of 100 seeds was presented in a range of 95 gr to 111 gr, where D1 (60
cm between rows and 30 cm between sites) with applications and without
application of nitrogen fertilizer stands out, clearly surpassing the value
reported by Gracia (2010) with 87 gr, as well as Guamán
et al. (2010), who point out that this parameter is between 50 to 60 gr; which
differs with the statement of Pallo (2016). The evaluation of this variable,
has as a particularity how key is an adequate planting distance so that the
plant can take the necessary nutrients and develop its physiological processes
normally, although in some agroecosystems populations of 200 000 plants per
hectare are recommended (50 cm between rows and 20 cm, with two seeds per site)
(Naab at al., 2009).
Yields
per hectare ranged from 2567.63 kg to 3928.05 kg. It is observed that the
highest yields are obtained with D3 (45 cm between rows and 18 cm between
sites); followed by D2 (60 cm between rows and 30 cm between sites); surpassing
that reported by Gracia (2010) with 1877.04 kg and coinciding with that
recorded by Guamán et al. (2010) who reached yields
with an average of 3348 kg ha-1. Furthermore, it is close to the
yield achieved by Vélez (2011) with 4602.25 kg ha-1. However, as
stated by Garcés et al. (2015) and Pedelini (2012),
stocking density can considerably increase yields per unit area.
The
economic analysis considering a reference price of $0.60/kg peanut in shell
shows that the highest net profit is obtained with D3 (45 cm between rows and
18 cm between sites) applying 60 kg N ha-1, followed by D1 (60 cm
between rows and 30 cm between sites) with 30 kg N ha-1, and very
close D2 (50 cm between rows and 25 cm between sites) with 0 kg N ha-1;
However, the Benefit-Cost Ratio shows that it is more convenient, from this
parameter D1 (60 cm between rows and 30 cm between sites) with 0, 30 and 60 kg
N ha-1, this could be explained by the effect of spacing (Augusto et
al., 2010) and the high cost of fertilizers.
Conclusions
The most adequate
population density according to the agronomic behavior and yield of the peanut
variety INIAP-382 Caramelo, is 60 cm between rows and 30 cm between plants (two
seeds per site). However, the distance of 45 cm between rows and 18 cm between
plants (one seed per site) cannot be disregarded. The fertilization level that
allows obtaining the best results in terms of agronomic performance and yield
is 30 kg N ha-1, this is evident in all planting distances used (45 cm x 18 cm;
50 cm x 25 cm; and 60 cm x 30 cm). The greatest utility from the economic point
of view was achieved with the planting distance of 45 cm between rows and 18 cm
between plants applying 30 kg N ha-1; however, the best benefit/cost ratio was
obtained with the distance of 60 cm between plants and 30 cm between rows with
the application of 30 kg N ha-1. Therefore, the application of nitrogen
fertilizer and the adequate stocking density allows an increase of up to 20% in
the economic income of the producers.
References
Abad
J. 2016. Influence of three sowing distances on the agronomic performance of
three varieties of peanut (Arachis hypogeae L.)
Graduate thesis. Guayaquil State University.
Alvarado R. (2004). Effect of
two levels of NPK and foliar fertilizer on the yield and quality of the peanut
crop (Arachis hypogaea L.) in the Caserío Rama Blanca, Sipacate,
La Gomera, Escuintla. Agricultural
Engineer Thesis. Faculty of
Environmental and Agricultural Sciences, Universidad Rafael Landívar.
Augusto, J.; Brenneman, T.B.; Baldwin, J.A. and Smith, N.B. 2010.
''Maximizing Economic Returns and Minimizing Stem Rot Incidence with Optimum
Plant Stands of Peanut in Nicaragua'', Peanut Science, vol. 37, no. 2,
July 1, 2010, pp. 137-143, ISSN 0095-3679, DOI 10.3146/ PS09-016.1.
Briones, N. 2021. Effect of population density on the
productive behavior of two varieties of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Balzar, Guayas. Undergraduate degree work. Agrarian
University of Ecuador. Guayas, Ecuador.
Chavez, K. 2019. Fertilization with nitrogen and micronutrients in the
peanut crop (Arachis hypogeae
L.) variety INIAP-380, Santa Ana canton province of Manabi. Thesis. Universidad
Laica Eloy Alfaro de Manabí.
Chávez E. 2007. Interaction foliar fertilizer - organic
matter on the yield and quality of peanut (Arachis
hypogaea L., Fabaceae) in Rama Blanca, Sipacate,
La Gomera, Escuintla. Agricultural Engineer Thesis. Faculty of Environmental and Agricultural
Sciences, Universidad Rafael Landívar.
Dávila, A. 2021. Effect of five planting densities on
peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) crop yield. Degree thesis. Universidad Nacional
Agraria de la Selva. Tingo Maria, Peru.
da Silveira, P.S.; Peixoto, C.P.; Ledo, C.A. da S.; Passos, A.R.;
Borges, V.P. and Bloisi, L.F.M. 2013. ''Fenologia e produtividade do amendoim em diferentes épocas de semeadura no recôncavo sul baiano = Phenology and yield of peanut in different sowing
seasons in southern bahia recôncavo'',
Bioscience Journal, vol. 29, no. 3, June 4, 2013, ISSN 1981-3163,
[Accessed: 4 April 2015], Available at: <http://www.seer.ufu. br/index.php/biosciencejournal/article/view/13437>.
Fundora,
Z.; Marrero, Virginia; Sánchez, M.; Carrión, Miriam; Cañet, F.; Hernández, E.;
Pozo, J.L.; Hernández Mercedes, Ortega, J.; Fresneda J. and Avilés R. 2001. Abbreviated Technical Instructions for
Peanuts. Ministry of Agriculture, Cuba.
García, C. 2016. Agronomic behavior of peanut
varieties INIAP 382 and INIAP, with four planting densities in the Babahoyo area. Undergraduate degree thesis. Technical
University of Babahoyo. Los Ríos, Ecuador.
Guamán R. Andrade C. 2010. INIAP 382 - Caramelo, Runner type peanut variety for semi-dry areas of Ecuador. Boletín Divulgativo No. 380. Guayaquil. INIAP (8p).
Garcés-Fiallos, F.R.;
Guamán, R.E. and Díaz-Coronel, T.M. 2011. ''Intensity of Cercospora arachidicola and Pseudomonas spp. and yield of
peanut materials in the central zone of the Ecuadorian Litoral'', Tropical
Plant Pathology, vol. 36, no. supplement, 2011, p. 679, ISSN 1982-5676.
Gracia
T. 2010. Agronomic adaptation and yield of 13 peanut (Arachis hypogeae L.) cultivars at the ''Mútile'' Experimental Station of the Technical University
''Luis Vargas Torres''.
Ibáñez Jácome, S. S. S., Alcívar Soria, E. E., Cedeño Alcívar, L. L.,
& Caicedo Aldaz, J. C. (2018). Evaluation of the agronomic
performance of 15 peanut lines of the Valencia group (Arachis Hypogaea L.). Digital
Science, 2(1), 263-282.
https://doi.org/10.33262/cienciadigital.v2i1.18
Martínez, C.; (2007).Characterization of the agromorphological
variability of peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) cultivars, in the eastern
region of Guatemala. University of San Carlos de Guatemala. Faculty of
Agronomy. Institute of Agronomic Research. Graduation thesis.
Mora, R., Rodriguez, D., Ramirez, J., Calderon, J., Salinas, T.,
Michay, G., ... Espinoza, P. (2019). Impact of organic fertilization
on the yield of Arachis hypogea L. crop in Orianga,
Loja province, Ecuador. Bosques Latitud Cero, 9(1), 69-82. Retrieved from
https://revistas.unl.edu.ec/index.php/bosques/article/view/588
Naab, J.B.; Boote, K.J.; Prasad, P.V.V.; Seini, S.S. and Jones, J.W.
2009. ''Influence of fungicide and sowing density on the growth and yield of
two groundnut cultivars'', The Journal of Agricultural Science, vol.
147, no. 02, April 2009, pp. 179-191, ISSN 1469-5146, DOI 10.1017/
S0021859608008290.
Pallo, R. 2021. Agronomic response of two peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) varieties
to three planting frames in the Mocache area. Degree
thesis. Quevedo State Technical University. Los Ríos, Ecuador.
Pedelini R. 2012. Practical guide for peanut cultivation. INTA General Cabrera. Agricultural
Experimental Station Manfredi. Boletín de Divulgación Técnica N 2. Second
Edition. 2-3 pp.
Vélez S.
2011. Agronomic
evaluation of three varieties of peanut (Arachis
hypogeae L.) with different population in the
Quevedo area. Thesis. State Technical University of Quevedo. Quevedo, Ecuador.
Zapata, N.; Vargas, M. and Vera, F. Growth and productivity of two
peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) genotypes according to population density
established in Ñuble, Chile, Idesia
(Arica), vol. 30, no. 3, December 2012, pp. 47-54, ISSN 0718-3429, DOI
10.4067/ S0718-34292012000300006.