The role of the intestinal microbiota in the

health and disease of dogs and its importance

in the agricultural sector

El papel de la Microbiota intestinal en la salud y

enfermedad de los perros y su importancia en el sector

agropecuario

María de Lourdes Salazar Mazamba

Diego Martín Cushicóndor-Collaguazo

Sandra Gabriela Parra-Guayasamin

Roberto Darwin Coello-Peralta

Abstract: The intestinal microbiota is fundamental in the proper

nutritional, physiological and immunological functions of domestic

dogs involved in the agricultural sector in the care of animals and

crops. The presence of a microbial ecosystem is essential to maximize

animal health and performance. The present study is a systematic

review of the role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease

of dogs and its importance in the agricultural sector. It is aimed at

efforts to reduce the use of antibiotics in domestic dogs and

production animals. Gut microbiota has the ability to enhance disease

resistance in hosts. Developing a diet with cereal grains high in

fermentable carbohydrates, probiotics and prebiotics is a sustainable

option to increase microbial diversity and beneficial microbes, which

help prevent the incidence of diarrhea and decrease the use of

subtherapeutic antibiotics. Finally, it is important to mention that the

intestinal microbiota provides greater protection to animals against

infections.

Keywords: Microbiota, health, domestic dogs and agricultural sector.

Published

Instituto Tecnológico Superior Edwards

Deming. Quito – Ecuador

Periodicity

April - June

Vol. 2, Num. 2, 2023

Dates of receipt

Received: January 11, 2023

Approved: March 22, 2023

http://centrosuragraria.com/index.php/revista

vol. 1. Num. 17. 2023.

pp. 1-13

Correspondence author

maría.salazarma@ug.edu.ec

Creative Commons License

Creative Commons License, Attribution-

NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0

International.https://creativecommons.org/lice

nses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.es

1 PhD in Animal Science, Professor-Researcher of the University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador,

maría.salazarma@ug.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3402-8058

2 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Guayaquil (UG), Guayaquil, Ecuador,

diegomcushicondor@outlook.com, https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5238-673X.

3 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Guayaquil (UG), Guayaquil, Ecuador,

sandra.parrag@ug.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2410-7999.

4 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Guayaquil (UG), Guayaquil, Ecuador,

roberto.coellope@ug.edu.ec, https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5152-2843

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

Resumen: La Microbiota intestinal es fundamental en las funciones

nutricionales, fisiológicas e inmunológicas adecuadas de los perros

domésticos que intervienen en el sector agropecuario en el cuidado de

animales y cultivos. La presencia de un ecosistema microbiano es

fundamental para maximizar la salud y el rendimiento animal. El

presente estudio, es una revisión sistemática sobre el rol que tiene

microbiota intestinal en la salud y enfermedad de los perros y su

importancia en el sector agropecuario. Y es con el fin de realizar

esfuerzos para reducir el uso de antibióticos en los perros domésticos,

y en animales de producción. La microbiota intestinal tiene la

capacidad de mejorar en los hospedadores la resistencia a las

enfermedades. Desarrollar una dieta con granos de cereales con alto

contenido de carbohidratos fermentables, probióticos y prebióticos es

una opción sostenible para aumentar la diversidad microbiana y los

microbios beneficiosos, que ayudan a prevenir la incidencia de diarrea

y disminuir el uso de antibióticos subterapéuticos. Finalmente, es

importante mencionar que la microbiota intestinal brinda una mayor

protección a los animales ante infecciones.

Palabras clave: Microbiota, salud, perros domésticos y sector

agropecuario

Introduction

The intestinal microbiota is the set of microorganisms that inhabit the

intestine of dogs, forming a complex and diverse community that

performs essential functions for the health of animals such as bacteria,

although fungi, parasites, and infectious agents such as viruses can also

be found. Advances in DNA sequencing techniques have made it

possible to study in greater detail the composition and function of the

gut microbiota, which has led to a growing interest in the role it plays

in the health and disease of dogs that influences the development of the

immune system and may be involved in the onset of disease (Garcia-

Mazcorro & Suchodolski, 2017).

An important aspect of the gut microbiota is its diversity and balance;

a decrease in gut microbiota diversity is known as dysbiosis, and may

be associated with intestinal and systemic diseases. In dogs, gut

dysbiosis has been linked to diseases such as inflammatory bowel

disease, obesity, diabetes and allergy (Garcia & Dowd, 2011).

Knowledge about the intestinal microbiota in dogs is constantly

April - June vol. 2. Num. 2 - 2023

evolving, and several factors have been identified that influence its

composition and function. These include diet, antibiotic use, stress, age

and genetics. Therefore, understanding the role of the gut microbiota in

health and disease in dogs is essential for the development of preventive

and therapeutic strategies in the future (Garcia-Mazcorro &

Suchodolski, 2017).

Among the research conducted on the role of the intestinal microbiota

in dogs, it has been found that the use of probiotics and prebiotics can

contribute to improve the composition and diversity of the intestinal

microbiota, and reduce the risk of intestinal and systemic diseases. On

the other hand, it has been shown that the indiscriminate use of

antibiotics can alter the composition of the intestinal microbiota in dogs,

which can have negative consequences on their health.

It is important to note that the gut microbiota of dogs can be influenced

by a variety of factors, such as diet, lifestyle, and the environment in

which they are found. Therefore, understanding the role of the

microbiota in health and disease in dogs is critical to developing

effective preventive and therapeutic strategies (Kogut & Zhang, 2022).

Likewise, the domestic dog plays an important role in the agricultural

sector, where it is used in the care of crops, animals, among others. In

this context, the objective of this review is to analyze the role of the

intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs, describing its

composition and functions, as well as the factors that may influence it.

The canine intestinal microbiota is a complex community of

microorganisms that plays a fundamental role in the health and disease

of dogs. The diversity and balance of this microbiota are essential for

the proper functioning of the digestive system, protection against

pathogens and modulation of the immune system (Garcia & Dowd,

2011). In farm animals, homeostasis of the neuroendocrine-immune-

microbial systems at the level of the intestinal tract is also required to

ensure the health, welfare and highest productive benefit of the animals

(Kogut & Zhang, 2022). Advances in DNA sequencing techniques have

made it possible to study in greater detail the composition and function

of the intestinal microbiota, which has led to a growing interest in the

role it plays in health and disease in dogs (Garcia & Dowd, 2011).

Likewise, knowledge of the different systems mentioned above will

allow the identification, planning and implementation of intervention

strategies to improve the intestinal health of farm animals with a holistic

approach (Kogut & Zhang, 202).

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

In production animals due to the rapid growth of modern genetic lines

under stressful conditions and high pathogen pressure present in

systems where sanitary conditions vary, the challenge is to ensure

adequate nutrient absorption and at the same time avoid dysbiosis

(Kogut & Zhang, 2022). The study of the intestinal microbiota in dogs

has become a field of research of great interest in recent years, since it

has been shown that its imbalance may be related to various diseases.

According to studies by Garcia-Mazcorro and Suchodolski (2017),

altered gut microbiota in dogs has been linked to gastrointestinal

diseases, obesity, diabetes, and autoimmune diseases, among others.

Therefore, it is essential to maintain a proper balance in the intestinal

microbiota of dogs to preserve their health.

Decreased gut microbiota diversity in dogs, known as dysbiosis, may

be associated with intestinal and systemic diseases. Gut dysbiosis can

cause a variety of diseases in dogs, including gastrointestinal diseases,

allergies, obesity, and autoimmune diseases (Suchodolski, 2016). A

state of dysbiosis, which can have negative repercussions on intestinal

barrier function, in production animals have been associated with

poorly digestible diets (Ducatelle et al., 2018), antibiotic use (Guevarra

et al., 2019). An indiscriminate use of antibiotics can alter the

composition of the intestinal microbiota in dogs, which can have

negative consequences on their health (Koppel et al., 2019). Antibiotics

such as tetracycline or streptomycin cause changes in the fecal

microbiota of 15- and 46-week-old hens after two days of treatment

(Videnska et al. 2013). Dysbiosis can be reversed by using additives

such as prebiotics and probiotics individually or together (McFarland

2014; Ducatelle et al. 2015).

Studies by Suchodolski (2011), Handl et al. (2011), Middelbos et al.

(2010) and Kin et al. (2017), have shown that the composition of the

canine intestinal microbiota is complex and diverse, being mainly

composed of bacteria, although fungi, viruses and other

microorganisms have also been found in smaller proportions. In cattle,

diets have impacts on fungal proliferation with microbial changes in the

rumen and methane emission levels Pitta et al. 2014).

In the study by Li et al. (2017), the proportion of protein and

carbohydrate in the diet was found to have a significant effect on the

diversity and composition of gut microbiota in dogs, and dogs with

different body conditions had different gut microbiota. For example,

April - June vol. 2. Num. 2 - 2023

butyrate, a result of the fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates by

microbiota (Clostridium), plays an important role in intestinal health by

being a source of energy for colonocytes and by anti-inflammatory

properties (Sassone-Corsi and Raffatellu 2015).

1. Digestion and absorption of nutrients

Studies by Van den Abbeele et al. (2013) and Zhang, et al. (2028) found

that certain butyrate-producing Clostridium species of Clostridium

cluster XIVa specifically bind to mucins, glycolyzed proteins that line

the gut epithelium and form part of the intestinal barrier. The authors

suggest that these findings could have important implications for

understanding the role of the gut microbiota in animal health and

disease and address the relationship between the gut microbiota and

nutrient digestion and absorption in dogs. Clostridium present primarily

in the cecum and colon facilitate the degradation of undigested starch

and cellulose to obtain energy from food (Stanley et al. 2013).

2. Protection against pathogens

Several studies have reported the diversity and species richness of the

gut microbiota in healthy and diarrheic calves (Gomez et al., 2015), in

horses (Rodriguez et al., 2018), in piglets (Ross et al. 2015), in dogs and

cats (Suchodolski, 2011), many of them agree that a gut dysbiosis is

involved in the pathogenesis of intestinal diseases and understanding

the microbiota allows the development of preventive and therapeutic

strategies.

3. Immune system regulation

Zeng et al. (2017) found that a healthy gut microbiota is related to an

adequate immune system response. However, a gut dysbiosis is related

to chronic inflammation (Rosii et al., 2014: Zeng et al., 2017) that can

be reestablished by addition of beneficial bateria (Schmitz et al., 2015),

the same that are related to higher density of goblet cells for increased

mucin secretion leading to protective mucus (Broom and Kogut 2018).

In addition, it has been shown that dysbiosis can affect the production

of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), which are important for gut health.

An imbalance in SCFA production can affect intestinal barrier integrity

and immune function (Suchodolski, 2016; Garcia-Mazcorro, and

Suchodolski, 2017; Minamoto et al. 2012).

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

Materials and methods

Among these we have:

Sampling and determination of the intestinal microbiota from fecal

samples by stool culture, bacteriological biochemical analysis, API,

Vitek and MALDI-TOF (Ritchie et al., 2008).

Handl et al. (2011) used mass sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to

investigate the diversity of fecal bacterial and fungal communities in

healthy dogs. The most abundant bacterial genera in dogs were

Clostridium, Fusobacterium, Bacteroides and Prevotella.

Molecular Biology techniques such as DNA sequencing, which is a

powerful tool for the study of the intestinal microbiota in dogs and can

provide detailed information on the diversity and abundance of the

bacterial species present. Here are some examples of results obtained

by DNA sequencing in studies of gut microbiota in dogs Kim et al.

(2017).

Li et al. (2017), analyzed the gut microbiota of dogs with different body

conditions (obese and lean) and found that the proportion of Firmicutes

and Bacteroidetes in the microbiota of obese dogs was higher than in

lean dogs, suggesting a possible link between obesity and gut

microbiota composition.

Handl et al. (2011), DNA sequencing was used to analyze microbial

diversity in the feces of healthy dogs and cats and found a large variety

of bacteria and fungi in both groups, suggesting that the gut microbiota

of pets is highly diverse and complex.

The interpretation of the results of DNA sequencing techniques in the

study of the gut microbiota of dogs is crucial for understanding the

relationship between the microbiota and animal health, and for

identifying disease prevention and treatment strategies based on

modulation of the microbiota (Suchodolski, 2016; Kin, et al. 2017;

Rochus et al. 2018).

April - June vol. 2. Num. 2 - 2023

3. Result

Modulation of the intestinal microbiota in dogs

Probiotics and prebiotics

In studies by Hernandez et al. (2017), Grzeskowiak et al. (2015),

Rochus et al. (2018) and Gomez et al. (2016) describe that probiotics

and prebiotics are immunomodulators of the gut microbiota with

beneficial effects on gastrointestinal health in dogs.

2. Antibiotics and their effect on the intestinal microbiota

Grønvold et al. (2020) examined the effect of oral administration of

amoxicillin on antimicrobial resistance in the intestinal microbiota of

dogs. He determined that exposure to amoxicillin resulted in an increase

in the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes in the fecal microbiota

of dogs.

Giaretta et al. (2019) examined the effect of oral administration of

enrofloxacin on the gut microbiota of dogs with diarrhea. He found that

exposure to enrofloxacin resulted in significant changes in the

composition of the fecal microbiota of dogs.

3. Diet and its influence on the intestinal microbiota

Diet is one of the major factors influencing the composition and

function of the intestinal microbiota in dogs. Recent studies have shown

that diet can affect the diversity and abundance of gut bacteria in dogs,

and that certain components of the diet can have a significant impact on

the health and disease of the animal. It has been shown that the inclusion

of dietary fiber in the diet of dogs can improve gut microbiota diversity

and promote a healthy gut environment. A study by Li et al. (2017)

found that dogs on high-protein, low-fiber diets had lower microbial

diversity and a higher abundance of potentially pathogenic bacteria

compared to dogs consuming high-fiber diets.

Prebiotics are non-digestible compounds that stimulate the growth and

activity of beneficial bacteria in the gut, while probiotics are live

microorganisms that confer a health benefit to the host. Rochus et al.

(2018) found that supplementation with probiotics and prebiotics in the

diet of dogs can improve microbial diversity and promote a healthy gut

environment, which could have a beneficial effect on the overall health

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

of the dog.

However, it is important to keep in mind that not all diets are the same

and the impact on gut microbiota can vary depending on the source and

amount of nutrients. A study by Vázquez-Baeza et al. (2020) found that

the composition of the gut microbiota of dogs can vary significantly

depending on the food source, such as meat, fish or plant-based foods.

According to Suchodolski et al. (2012), the intestinal microbiota of

dogs is composed of a great diversity of microorganisms that play an

important role in maintaining the health of the animal; therefore, an

imbalance in the composition of the microbiota, can lead to various

diseases in dogs, such as: gastrointestinal diseases, allergies and

systemic diseases.

Likewise, Ross et al. (2015) described that probiotic supplementation

improves the composition of the intestinal microbiota and thus there is

better immune function. These findings suggest that modulation of the

gut microbiota may be an effective strategy to prevent or treat disease

in dogs.

Diet is a key factor in modulating the gut microbiota of dogs. In a study

by Li et al. (2017), they found that the ratio of protein to carbohydrate

in the diet had a significant effect on the composition of the gut

microbiota in dogs. This study suggests that diet may be an important

tool for improving gut microbiota health and preventing disease in dogs.

In a study by Handl et al. (2011), dogs and cats were found to have a

very high fecal microbial diversity, including a large number of bacteria

and fungi. These results suggest that the gut microbiota of dogs and cats

is complex and that there is much to be learned about its role in health

and disease.

Rochus et al. (2018) concluded that probiotic and prebiotic

supplementation can have a beneficial effect on animal health,

including improved immune function and reduced intestinal

inflammation. However, the authors note that more research is needed

to fully understand the effects of these treatments on gut microbiota and

health in dogs.

The role of the gut microbiota in health and disease in dogs is a

constantly evolving topic, and more research is needed to fully

April - June vol. 2. Num. 2 - 2023

understand the complexity of the microbiota and how it can be

modulated to improve animal health.

4. Conclusions

The intestinal microbiota of dogs plays an important role in dog health

and disease. A dysbiosis or imbalance of the microbiota is linked to

gastrointestinal disease, obesity, diabetes and immune-mediated

diseases. However, the use of probiotics and prebiotics can help

improve gut health and reduce the risk of disease. In addition, diet and

other environmental factors have been found to have a significant

impact on the composition of the microbiota and, therefore, on the

health of dogs and this helps their activity in the agricultural sector.

Importantly, antibiotic-induced gut dysbiosis can predispose dogs to a

variety of health problems, including secondary infections and

inflammatory bowel disease. Therefore, responsible antibiotic use and

the need for measures to preserve the health of the gut microbiota

during and after antibiotic treatment should be considered.

References

Broom LJ, Kogut MH (2018) Inflammation: friend or foe for animal

production? Poultry Science 97 (2):510-514.

Broom LJ, Kogut MH (2018). The role of the gut microbiome in

shaping the immune system of chickens. Vet Immunol

Immunopathol 204:44-51.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.10.002.

Ducatelle R, Eeckhaut V, Haesebrouck F, van Immerseel F (2015). A

review on prebiotics and probiotics for the control of dysbiosis.

Present status and future perspectives. Animal 9 (1):43-48.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S1751731114002584

Ducatelle R, Goossens E, de Meyer F, Eeckhaut V, Antonissen G,

Haesebrouck F, van Immerseel F (2018). Biomarkers for

monitoring intestinal health in poultry. Present status and future

perspectives. Veterinary research 49(1):43.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13567-018-0538-6

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

Garcia-Mazcorro, J. F., & Suchodolski, J. S. (2017). Investigation of

the microbiome in canine and feline gastrointestinal diseases.

Animal Health Research Reviews, 18(2), 93-108. doi:

10.1017/S1466252317000141.

Garcia-Mazcorro, J. F., & Dowd, S. E. (2011). The canine

gastrointestinal microbiome: a review. Journal of veterinary

internal medicine, 25(1), 1-10. doi: 10.1111/j.1939-

1676.2010.0658.x.

Gómez, D. E., Arroyo, L. G., Costa, M. C., Viel, L., & Weese, J. S.

(2015). Characterization of the fecal bacterial microbiota of

healthy and diarrheic dairy calves. Journal of Veterinary Internal

Medicine, 29(5), 1564-1572. doi: 10.1111/jvim.13617.

Guevarra RB, Lee JH, Lee SH, Seok M-J, Kim DW, Kang BN et al

(2019). Piglet gut microbial shifts early in life: causes and effects.

Journal of animal science and biotechnology 10:1.

https://doi.org/10.1186/ s40104-018-0308-3.

Handl, S., Dowd, S. E., Garcia-Mazcorro, J. F., Steiner, J. M., &

Suchodolski, J. S. (2011). Massive parallel 16S rRNA gene

pyrosequencing reveals highly diverse fecal bacterial and fungal

communities in healthy dogs and cats. FEMS Microbiology

Ecology, 76(2), 301-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-

6941.2011.01058.x.

Kogut M, & Zhang G. Gut Microbiota, Immunity, and Health in

Production Animals. 1st ed: Springer. New York (EU). 2022.

Koppel, N., Maini Rekdal, V., & Balskus, E. P. (2019). Chemical

transformation of xenobiotics by the human gut microbiota.

Frontiers in veterinary science, 6, 153. doi:

10.3389/fvets.2019.00153.

Li, Q., Lauber, C. L., Czarnecki-Maulden, G., Pan, Y., Hannah, S. S.,

Schacht, E., ... & Ackermann, M. R. (2017). Effects of the dietary

protein and carbohydrate ratio on gut microbiomes in dogs of

different body conditions. mBio, 8(1), e01703-16. doi:

10.1128/mBio.01703-16.

April - June vol. 2. Num. 2 - 2023

McFarland LV (2014). Use of probiotics to correct dysbiosis of normal

microbiota following disease or disruptive events. A systematic

review. BMJ Open 4(8):e005047. https://doi.org/10.1136/

bmjopen-2014-005047.

Middelbos, I. S., Vester Boler, B. M., Qu, A., White, B. A., Swanson,

K. S., & Fahey Jr, G. C. (2010). Phylogenetic characterization of

fecal microbial communities of dogs fed diets with or without

supplemental dietary fiber using 454 pyrosequencing. PloS One,

5(3), e9768. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0009768.

Pitta DW, Kumar S, Vecchiarelli B, Shirley DJ, Bittinger K, Baker LD,

Ferguson JD, Thomsen N (2014) Temporal dynamics in the

ruminal microbiome of dairy cows during the transition period.

Journal of Animal Science 92(9):4014-4022.

https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2014-7621

Rochus, K., Janssens, G. P., Hesta, M., & Debraekeleer, J. (2018).

Effect of probiotics and prebiotics on the canine gastrointestinal

tract and their interactions with the host. Journal of animal

physiology and animal nutrition, 102(3), 601-617. doi:

10.1111/jpn.12838.

Ross, G. R., Gusils, C., Fondevila, M., & Signorini, M. L. (2015).

Intestinal microbiota and immune system of piglets: influence of

enterococcus faecium cernelle 68 supplementation. Archives of

Microbiology, 197(2), 185-193. doi: 10.1007/s00203-014-1058-

8antibióticos.

Rossi, G., Pengo, G., Caldin, M., Piccionello, A. P., Steiner, J. M., &

Cohen, N. D. (2014). Comparison of microbiological,

histological, and immunomodulatory parameters in response to

treatment with either combination therapy with prednisone and

metronidazole or probiotic VSL# 3 strains in dogs with idiopathic

inflammatory bowel disease. PloS one, 9(4), e94699.

https://doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094699

Sassone-Corsi M, Raffatellu M (2015). No vacancy: how beneficial

microbes cooperate with immunity to provide colonization

resistance to pathogens. The Journal of Immunology 194:4081-

4087.

Silva MLF, Lima JAF, Cantarelli VS, Amaral NO, Zangerônimo MG,

Fialho ET (2010). Probiotics and antibiotics as additives for sows

The role of the intestinal microbiota in the health and disease of dogs and its importance in the

agricultural sector.

and piglets during nursery phase. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia

39:2453-2459. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-

35982010001100019

Stanley D, Geier MS, Denman SE, Haring VR, Crowley TM, Hughes

RJ et al (2013). Identification of chicken intestinal microbiota

correlated with the efficiency of energy extraction from feed.

Veterinary microbiology 164(1-2):85-92.

Suchodolski, J. S. (2011). Intestinal microbiota of dogs and cats: A

bigger world than we thought. Veterinary Clinics of North

America: Small Animal Practice, 41(2), 261-272.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cvsm.2010.12.006

Suchodolski, J. S. (2016). Diagnosis and interpretation of intestinal

dysbiosis in dogs and cats. Journal of Veterinary Internal

Medicine, 30(4), 927-941. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.13975.

Suchodolski, J. S. (2016). Diagnosis and interpretation of intestinal

dysbiosis in dogs and cats. Minamoto, Y., Hooda, S., Swanson,

K. S., & Suchodolski, J. S. (2012). Fecal microbiota in healthy

dogs and dogs with chronic inflammatory enteropathy.

Veterinary microbiology, 160(3-4), 353-359. doi:

10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.06.021.

Van den Abbeele, P., Belzer, C., Goossens, M., Kleerebezem, M., De

Vos, W. M., Thas, O., ... & Verstraete, W. (2013). Butyrate-

producing Clostridium cluster XIVa species specifically colonize

mucins in an in vitro gut model. The ISME journal, 7(5), 949-961.

doi: 10.1038/ismej.2012.158.

Videnska P, Faldynova M, Juricova H et al (2013) Chicken faecal

microbiota and disturbances induced by single or repeated

therapy with tetracycline and streptomycin. BMC veterinary

research 9:30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-9-30.

https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-6148-9-30

Zeng, M. Y., Inohara, H., & Katoh, K. (2017). The gut microbiome as

a therapeutic target in inflammatory bowel disease. Inflammatory

bowel diseases, 23(8), 1327-1339. https://doi:

10.1097/MIB.0000000000001117